Anatomy of a PR Campaign

PR campaigns occur for any number of reasons. Firms can use them to issue a quick response to a crisis or emerging issue, or they can stem from a long-term strategy tied to other marketing efforts. Regardless of its purpose, a typical campaign often involves four phases. This is sometimes referred to as the ROPES model, which stands for Research, Objectives, Programming, and Evaluation. Let’s explore each concept in the model by analyzing the groundbreaking campaign by De Beers to embed diamond engagement rings into American culture, a classic example of a meticulously planned public relations effort.

Research Phase

The first step of many PR campaigns begins with the initial research phase. First, practitioners identify and qualify the issue they wish to address. Then, they research the organization itself to clarify the problems of public perception, positioning, and internal dynamics. Strategists can also research the potential audience of the campaign. This audience may include media outlets, constituents, consumers, and competitors. Finally, they often research the context of the campaign, including the potential consequences and effects on the organization. After considering all these factors, practitioners have the resources to select the most suitable type of campaign.

Before launching their campaign in the late 1930s, De Beers faced a significant challenge: diamonds were seen as a luxury item, and sales were declining due to the Great Depression. Engagement rings existed, but only about 10% of them contained diamonds, and there was no strong cultural tradition linking diamonds specifically to marriage proposals. De Beers, which had a near-monopoly on the world’s diamond supply, needed to create demand and stabilize prices. Their key research findings indicated that diamonds were perceived as a luxury for the wealthy, not a common item, and that no established tradition of diamond engagement rings existed in the U.S. They also noted that men were already purchasing about 90% of all engagement rings, identifying a clear target audience, and that the market needed stability and an emotional connection to justify the purchase of a diamond.

Objectives Phase

During the strategy phase, PR professionals usually determine objectives focused on the desired goal of the campaign and formulate strategies to meet those objectives. Broad strategies, such as determining the overall message of a campaign and the most effective way to communicate it, can be finalized at this stage.

De Beers hired the advertising agency N.W. Ayer to devise a strategy that would transform diamonds from mere commodities into symbols of enduring love and commitment. The overarching goal was to establish the diamond engagement ring as an indispensable symbol of love and marriage in American culture. The core message and narrative centered on diamonds representing eternal love, commitment, and masculinity or responsibility for the giver, appealing to emotions rather than just the product’s physical attributes. The primary target audience was young men as the purchasers, and indirectly, young women as the recipients who would desire the ring. Key strategic decisions included focusing on emotional value over monetary value, linking diamonds to lasting relationships and significant life moments, and avoiding overt product placement of the De Beers brand in favor of promoting the idea of diamonds to create a “tradition” where one didn’t widely exist.

Programming Phase

During the tactics phase, the PR group determines the means to implement the strategies formulated during the strategy phase. This process involves devising specific communication techniques and selecting the most suitable forms of media to convey the message effectively. This phase may also address budgetary restrictions and possibilities.

N.W. Ayer implemented a multi-faceted tactical approach to disseminate the core message and establish the new cultural norm. They achieved media integration by planting stories and photographs in popular magazines and newspapers, featuring glamorous movie stars and socialites wearing diamond rings. These articles subtly reinforced the connection between romance, celebrity, and diamonds, often emphasizing the carat size. In 1948, the iconic slogan “A Diamond Is Forever” was coined, perfectly encapsulating the desired emotional association of permanence and eternal love, reinforcing the idea that a diamond, like a marriage, should last forever and should not be resold. Educational efforts were also undertaken as De Beers introduced and popularized the “4 Cs” (Cut, Clarity, Color, Carat Weight) to educate consumers on how to evaluate diamonds, giving men a framework for understanding and valuing their purchase. Furthermore, cinema and celebrity endorsements played a crucial role; diamonds were subtly featured in films and worn by Hollywood stars, further glamorizing them and associating them with elegance and aspirational lifestyles, with Marilyn Monroe’s song “Diamonds Are a Girl’s Best Friend” being a famous example that reinforced this cultural link. Finally, De Beers strategically promoted the idea that a man should spend at least one month’s salary (later two months’ salary) on an engagement ring, an ingenious tactic to anchor the perceived value of the gift to a significant financial commitment, further solidifying its symbolic importance.

Evaluation Phase

After the overall campaign has launched, PR practitioners enter the evaluation phase. The group can review its campaign plan and evaluate its potential effectiveness. They may also conduct further research to better understand the possible results, costs, and benefits of the campaign. After completion, the firm will establish specific criteria for evaluating the campaign (Smith, 2002).

The success of the De Beers campaign was profound and long-lasting, demonstrating its effectiveness in shaping consumer behavior and cultural norms (Reid, 2006). This was evident in the increased sales, as from 1939 to 1979, De Beers’ wholesale diamond sales in the United States soared from $23 million to $2.1 billion. A significant cultural shift occurred, with over 80% of American engagement rings containing diamonds by the early 1980s, a dramatic increase from just 10% before the campaign, solidifying the diamond engagement ring as a deeply ingrained cultural expectation and a rite of passage. The campaign also achieved remarkable brand longevity; the “A Diamond Is Forever” slogan was proclaimed the “Slogan of the Century” by Advertising Age in 1999 and remains one of the most recognizable and enduring taglines in history. Ultimately, the campaign’s success in market control allowed De Beers to maintain the perceived rarity and value of diamonds, despite fluctuations in supply, enabling them to control the market for decades. This campaign is widely studied as a masterclass in emotional branding and cultural engineering, illustrating how strategic PR can create demand and reshape societal traditions.

Examples of Other PR Campaigns

Since its modern inception in the early 20th century, PR has produced numerous campaigns—some highly successful, others dismal failures. Some of these campaigns have become particularly significant for their lasting influence or creative execution. This section highlights a few notable PR campaigns from the past years.

Big Tobacco Aids Researchers

In 1953, studies showing the detrimental health effects of smoking caused a drop in cigarette sales. An alliance of tobacco manufacturers hired the PR firm Hill & Knowlton to develop a campaign addressing this issue. First, Hill & Knowlton created the Tobacco Industry Research Committee (TIRC) to promote studies that questioned the health effects of tobacco use. The TIRC ran advertisements featuring the results of these studies, giving journalists who addressed the subject an easy source to quote. The groups working against smoking lacked familiarity with media relations, which made it harder for journalists to quote them and use their arguments.

The campaign achieved success, however, not because it denied the harmful effects of smoking, but because it stressed the disagreements between researchers. By providing the press with information favorable to the tobacco manufacturers and publicly promoting new filtered cigarettes, the campaign aimed to replace the idea that smoking was undeniably bad with the idea that scientists disagreed over the effects of smoking. This strategy served tobacco companies well up through the 1980s, and climate change-denying organizations like the Heartland Institute and the CO2 Coalition have employed similar tactics.

Dove “Real Beauty” Campaign

Launched in 2004, Dove’s “Real Beauty” campaign challenged conventional beauty standards in advertising by featuring diverse women of various ages, shapes, and ethnicities, rather than professional models. The campaign aimed to broaden the definition of beauty and boost women’s self-esteem. Through powerful print ads, TV commercials, and viral videos like “Evolution” and “Real Beauty Sketches,” Dove sparked a global conversation about body image and authenticity. The campaign generated immense earned media, with models appearing on talk shows and millions engaging online. While facing some criticism, “Real Beauty” successfully differentiated Dove, fostered deep emotional connections with consumers, and significantly increased brand loyalty and sales by aligning the brand with a higher purpose.

Ice Bucket Challenge

The ALS Ice Bucket Challenge, which went viral in the summer of 2014, was a phenomenally successful social media campaign that raised unprecedented awareness and funds for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) research. Participants filmed themselves dumping a bucket of ice water over their heads, nominated others to do the same, and encouraged donations to the ALS Association. Its simple, shareable, and interactive nature, combined with widespread celebrity participation (including Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey), propelled it into a global phenomenon. The campaign raised over $115 million for the ALS Association in just eight weeks, significantly increasing public understanding of the disease and directly contributing to the discovery of a new ALS gene.

Patagonia’s “Don’t Buy This Jacket” Campaign

Patagonia likely identified a burgeoning consumer concern regarding fast fashion and its environmental impact, which resonated strongly with their core values of sustainability and product longevity. They understood their target audience deeply valued ethical consumption and environmental responsibility. The campaign aimed to reinforce Patagonia’s brand image as a leader in sustainable practices, provoke thought about consumerism, and ultimately drive sales of their durable products by highlighting their exceptional quality and longevity – a seemingly counter-intuitive approach. They launched the audacious “Don’t Buy This Jacket” campaign on Black Friday, a day typically synonymous with rampant consumerism. This included prominent full-page advertisements in The New York Times and other influential publications, a robust online presence, and public statements from company leadership emphasizing the importance of repairing and reusing products. They also heavily promoted their “Worn Wear” program, encouraging customers to repair and extend the life of their garments. Patagonia likely meticulously monitored media coverage and public discourse surrounding the campaign, tracking brand sentiment and engagement with their Worn Wear initiative. They would have also closely measured sales figures of their durable items and observed any discernible shifts in customer loyalty or the public’s perception of their environmental commitment.

Starbucks “Race Together” Initiative

Following public incidents of racial bias and widespread criticism, Starbucks undertook extensive internal and external research to understand the depth of the issue and public expectations for corporate responsibility in diversity and inclusion. They likely analyzed social media sentiment, gathered employee feedback, and consulted with diversity experts. The primary objectives were to directly address perceptions of racial bias, cultivate a more inclusive environment for both employees and customers, and unequivocally demonstrate a genuine, long-term commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). Initially, an objective might have been to initiate a broader dialogue around race within their stores.

The initial “Race Together” campaign, which involved baristas writing “Race Together” on cups, faced significant and immediate public backlash. In response to this rapid evaluation, their programming shifted dramatically. They made the unprecedented move of closing all stores for comprehensive racial bias training, invested heavily in long-term DEI initiatives, forged partnerships with reputable civil rights organizations, and launched more nuanced internal and external communication campaigns focused on education, empathy, and systemic change. The swift response to the initial “Race Together” backlash served as a crucial example of real-time evaluation in action.

Spotify Wrapped Campaign

Spotify Wrapped, an annual personalized data visualization experience launched in 2016, allows users to review their listening habits over the past year. It presents data on top artists, songs, genres, and podcasts in visually engaging, shareable stories and graphics. This campaign is a masterclass in data storytelling and user-generated content, transforming personal listening data into a cultural phenomenon. Spotify Wrapped generates immense social media buzz annually, with millions of users sharing their personalized results, effectively turning individual listening summaries into widespread brand promotion. It fosters a sense of community, belonging, and FOMO (fear of missing out), driving user engagement, retention, and new subscriptions by making music consumption a social identity marker.

Targets for PR Campaigns

In the realm of public relations, a “public” is defined as any group of people who share a standard set of interests and goals, and with whom an organization needs to communicate. Understanding these diverse groups is fundamental to effective PR, as each public requires tailored communication strategies. These publics are categorized into two main types: internal and external.

Internal publics consist of individuals who are part of the organization itself. This includes employees at all levels, from front-line staff to senior management, as well as volunteers, board members, and sometimes even temporary contractors. Effective communication with internal publics is crucial for fostering a positive work environment, ensuring alignment with organizational goals, and maintaining morale. Standard methods for engaging internal publics include regular company-wide emails, internal newsletters (whether digital or print), intranet portals, town hall meetings, and employee recognition programs. For example, a tech company might send out a weekly internal newsletter detailing project updates, employee achievements, and upcoming company events to keep everyone informed and engaged, ensuring that all employees feel connected to the company’s mission and vision.

Conversely, external publics encompass groups of people outside the immediate organization. This is a much broader and often less homogeneous category, making effective communication more complex. External publics can include customers, potential customers, investors, shareholders, media outlets, government officials, community leaders, suppliers, distributors, and the general public. Communication with external publics aims to build and maintain a positive reputation, influence public opinion, and foster support for the organization’s activities. For instance, a retail chain might engage with its external public of customers through social media campaigns, loyalty programs, and customer service initiatives. Simultaneously, it might communicate with investors through quarterly earnings calls and annual reports, and with local community groups through sponsorship of events or charitable contributions. The diverse nature of external publics necessitates a multifaceted approach, often involving different messages and channels to resonate effectively with each specific group.

Crisis Communication

A crisis, in the context of public relations, is an event perceived to threaten a company’s reputation or image, demanding a swift and strategic response. Effective crisis communication is paramount to mitigating damage and preserving public trust. Several core principles guide successful crisis management.

First and foremost, be prepared. This means having a comprehensive plan in place for a wide range of potential events, both those deemed likely and those considered highly unlikely. For instance, an airline like Delta should have detailed protocols for responding to a plane crash, encompassing everything from immediate notification procedures to long-term support for affected families. Similarly, a factory handling hazardous materials must have a crisis plan for a chemical spill, outlining evacuation procedures, environmental containment, and communication with regulatory bodies and the surrounding community. A college, on the other hand, might prepare for academic or athletic scandals, detailing how it would address ethical breaches, student conduct issues, and reputational damage. Proactive planning ensures that an organization isn’t caught flat-footed when disaster strikes, allowing for a more organized and effective response.

Secondly, could you be honest? In a crisis, honesty is not merely the best policy; it is often the only sustainable policy. Lies or deliberate obfuscations almost invariably catch up to an organization, and cover-ups frequently prove to be far more damaging than the original problem itself. Historical examples abound, such as the Watergate scandal involving Richard Nixon or Bill Clinton’s impeachment proceedings, where attempts to conceal information spiraled into far greater crises. Transparency, even when the truth is uncomfortable, builds credibility and trust, while deceit erodes it completely.

Following honesty, it’s crucial to apologize and truly mean it. A genuine apology goes beyond mere words; it demonstrates sincere remorse and, crucially, includes a commitment to action. A superficial apology without tangible steps to rectify the situation will likely be perceived as disingenuous and further damage public perception. For example, if a product defect causes harm, a meaningful apology would be accompanied by a recall, an investigation into the cause, and a commitment to new safety measures, rather than just a press statement.

Fourth, you can move quickly. In today’s hyper-connected world, the news cycle operates at lightning speed, especially with the proliferation of social media. Delays in communication can allow misinformation to spread, fill the information vacuum with speculation, and significantly worsen public perception. A rapid, well-coordinated response can help control the narrative and demonstrate an organization’s commitment to addressing the issue head-on.

Finally, could you communicate effectively with the press and all other constituencies? This principle underscores the importance of a holistic communication strategy that includes not only external publics (customers, investors, the general public) and the press, but also vital internal publics (employees). Keeping employees informed is critical, as they are often the first point of contact for external inquiries and can be influential ambassadors or detractors depending on how well they are managed.

Responding to an Internet crisis, specifically, introduces additional complexities and demands a tailored approach. The first step is to identify a dedicated crisis team, typically comprising PR professionals, legal counsel, and digital communication experts. This team needs to be prepared to imagine the worst nightmare and have a plan to handle it effectively. Constant vigilance is key, which means tracking the blogosphere and social media for mentions, sentiment, and emerging issues. As with traditional crises, there is limited time to respond online, making speed paramount. The infamous Domino’s Pizza example in 2009 perfectly illustrates this, where a video of employees engaging in unsanitary food preparation went viral, forcing the CEO to issue a public apology and outline corrective actions. Similarly, KFC faced a significant online crisis in the UK in 2018 when a chicken shortage forced many outlets to close, leading to widespread consumer frustration and the company issuing a humorous yet apologetic ad spelling “FCK” to address the “chicken fiasco.”

Another poignant example is the United Airlines passenger removal incident in 2017. A video went viral showing a passenger being forcibly dragged off an overbooked flight. United’s initial response was perceived as tone-deaf and defensive, attempting to shift blame to the passenger and defending their employees’ actions. This lack of immediate, sincere apology and transparency led to a significant public outcry, a massive drop in stock value, and severe reputational damage. The incident highlighted the critical importance of honesty, swift action, genuine apologies, and consideration of the broader public’s reaction to actions, especially when captured and amplified by social media. It serves as a stark reminder that in the age of citizen journalism, a company’s actions and their communication around those actions are under constant scrutiny.

The advent of the internet has profoundly reshaped the landscape of public relations, presenting both unprecedented opportunities and significant challenges. One of the most fundamental shifts is that the internet gives critics direct access to the world without the gatekeeper limits of traditional journalism. Previously, media outlets acted as filters, controlling what information reached the public. Now, anyone with an internet connection can publish their opinions, critiques, or even misinformation, directly reaching a global audience through social media platforms, blogs, and online forums. This means organizations no longer have exclusive control over their narrative.

This direct access facilitates direct communication with various publics, but it also means that online crises cannot be contained as easily as they once could. A negative comment or a viral video can spread globally in minutes, making it incredibly difficult to manage the narrative effectively. These crises are often self-inflicted, stemming from a misstep by the company itself or its employees, as seen in numerous examples where an ill-advised tweet or a poorly handled customer service interaction quickly escalates into a full-blown reputational nightmare. Furthermore, the internet makes confidential leaks incredibly easy, with internal documents, emails, or sensitive information susceptible to being shared publicly with minimal effort, posing significant security and reputational risks. Companies sometimes forget that context is essential when communicating online. A message that might be clear internally or in a traditional press release can be easily misinterpreted or taken out of context on social media, leading to unforeseen backlash. Finally, rumors flourish on the Net when good information fails to flow. In the absence of timely, accurate, and transparent communication from an organization, the vacuum is often filled by speculation, misinformation, and damaging rumors, which can be incredibly difficult to dispel once they take root.

The Nestlé social media crisis in 2010 serves as a classic example of how online crises can be self-inflicted and spiral out of control due to a company’s mishandling of direct communication with its publics. Greenpeace launched a campaign against Nestlé, accusing it of using palm oil that contributed to rainforest destruction and endangered orangutans. When activists posted critical comments and altered Nestlé’s logo on the company’s Facebook page, Nestlé’s social media team responded aggressively, deleting comments and issuing stern warnings against using modified logos. This heavy-handed approach infuriated online users, who then flooded the page with more negative comments and protests, quickly turning a criticism of their sourcing into a widespread condemnation of their online engagement strategy. The crisis demonstrated how a company’s defensive and tone-deaf responses on social media can amplify a problem, making it impossible to contain.

WikiLeaks itself is a prime example of how the internet facilitates confidential leaks and challenges traditional information control. Over the years, WikiLeaks has published vast quantities of classified and confidential documents from governments and corporations. These leaks, often provided by whistleblowers, directly bypass any gatekeepers and are immediately accessible to anyone with an internet connection. The information, whether about diplomatic cables or corporate malfeasance, can quickly become global news, forcing organizations to respond to sensitive internal matters played out in the public sphere, demonstrating the immense challenge the internet poses to maintaining confidentiality and controlling narratives.